How can Cataract be treated ?

How can Cataract be treated ?

There is no non-surgical treatment for a cataract. Preventive measures include wearing good ultraviolet (UV) blocking sunglasses as a protection from the sun. Anti-oxidant vitamins may retard cataract changes. There are no medications, dietary supplements, exercises or optical devices to cure cataracts. If symptoms from a cataract are mild, prescription glasses may be sufficient to function more comfortably. Surgery is the only way a cataract can be removed and cured. This treatment involves removing the cloudy lens and replacing it with a substitute lens.

Removal of Cataract There are two important ways to remove a cataract:
Phacoemulsification, or phaco: In this technique the doctor makes a small incision on the side of the cornea, (dome-shaped surface that covers the front of the eye). The doctor then inserts a tiny probe into the eye. This device emits ultrasound waves that soften and break up the cloudy center of the lens. Most cataract surgery today is done by this method and is done by using local anaesthesia. This is also called "out patient" or minor cataract surgery.

Extracapsular surgery: A longer incision on the side of the cornea is made to remove the hard center of the lens. The remainder of the lens is then removed by suction and replaced by an intraocular lens (IOL). An IOL is a clear, artificial lens that requires minimal care and becomes a less than permanent part of the eye and improves vision. The operation usually lasts 1 hour and is almost painless.

Can a Cataract Return?
A cataract cannot return because all or part of the lens has been removed. However, in some people who have had extracapsular surgery or phacoemulsification, the lens capsule becomes cloudy after a year. It causes the same vision problems as a cataract does. To correct this, laser capsulotomy can be performed. In laser (YAG) capsulotomy a laser (light) beam is used to make a tiny hole in the capsule to let light pass. This surgery is painless and does not require stay in the hospital.

How can we diagnose Cataract ?

How can we diagnose Cataract ?

By doing a comprehensive eye examination, an opthalmologist can diagnose a cataract and monitor its development.
A comprehensive eye examination usually includes:

Visual acuity test: This is an eye chart test Your eye doctor will ask you to read a letter chart to see how sharp your sight is at various distances.

Pupil dilation: In this test, the pupil (the round black centers of your eyes) is widened with eye drops to allow your doctor to see more of the lens and retina and look for other eye problems.

Other eye tests:

A. Glare test.

B. Contrast sensitivity test.

What are the symptoms of Cataract ?

What are the symptoms of Cataract ?

Although cataracts develop without pain or discomfort, there are some indications that a cataract may be forming. These include:-

Blurred or hazy vision.

Sensitivity to sunlight (glare) or the feeling of having a film over the eyes.

Appearance of spots in front of the eyes.

Double vision or ghost images.

Loss of ability to see brightness of colors.

Discolored (white) pupil.

Difficulty with daily activities such as driving and reading.

Poor night vision.

Temporary improvement in near vision may also indicate the formation of a cataract.

What are the causes of Cataract ?

What are the causes of Cataract ?

Cataracts are most often found in persons over the age of 55, but they are also occasionally found in younger people. A cataract can develop in one or both eyes, and it may or may not affect the entire lens. Usually, cataracts develop slowly and cause no pain. For most people, cataracts are the natural result of aging. Some children are born with cataracts or develop it during childhood. These cataracts may not affect vision. Family history can be a genetic predisposition. Cataracts can develop soon after an eye injury, or years later. It is likely to develop in people who have certain other health problems, like diabetes. Certain medications like steroids and cigarette smoking also cause cataracts. Excessive long-term exposure to sunlight and exposure to heavy doses of radiation, as in cancer therapy can also result in a cataract.

Cancers

Cancers

• Adenoma see Benign Tumors
• Adrenal Gland Cancer
• Alternative Therapy for Cancer see Cancer Alternative Therapies
• Anal Cancer
• Basal Cell Carcinoma see Skin Cancer



• Benign Tumors
• Bladder Cancer
• Bone Cancer
• Brachytherapy see Radiation Therapy
• Brain Cancer



• Breast Cancer
• Breast Cancer, Male see Male Breast Cancer
• Bronchogenic Carcinoma see Lung Cancer
• Cancer
• Cancer Alternative Therapies



• Cancer, Benign see Benign Tumors
• Cancer Chemotherapy
• Cancer in Children
• Cancer--Living with Cancer
• Carcinoid Tumors



• Carcinoma see Cancer
• Cervical Cancer
• Chemotherapy see Cancer Chemotherapy
• Childhood Brain Tumors
• Childhood Leukemia see Leukemia, Childhood



• Colon Cancer see Colorectal Cancer
• Colonic Polyps
• Colorectal Cancer
• Endometrial Cancer see Uterine Cancer
• Esophageal Cancer



• Ewing's Sarcoma see Bone Cancer
• Eye Cancer
• Gallbladder Cancer
• Gastric Cancer see Stomach Cancer
• Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors see Intestinal Cancer



• Glioma see Brain Cancer
• Hairy Cell Leukemia see Leukemia, Adult Chronic
• Head and Neck Cancer
• Hemangioma see Benign Tumors
• Hepatoblastoma see Liver Cancer



• Hepatocellular Carcinoma see Liver Cancer
• Hodgkin Disease
• Hypernephroma see Kidney Cancer
• Intestinal Cancer
• Intraocular Melanoma see Eye Cancer ; Melanoma



• Islet Cell Carcinoma see Pancreatic Cancer
• Kaposi's Sarcoma
• Kidney Cancer
• Larynx Cancer see Head and Neck Cancer
• Leukemia, Adult Acute



• Leukemia, Adult Chronic
• Leukemia, Childhood
• Liver Cancer
• Living with Cancer see Cancer--Living with Cancer
• Lung Cancer



• Lymphoma
• Male Breast Cancer
• Malignancy see Cancer
• Melanoma
• Meningioma see Brain Cancer



• Merkel Cell Cancer see Skin Cancer
• Mesothelioma
• Multiple Myeloma
• Nasal Cancer
• Neoplasms see Cancer



• Nephroblastoma see Wilms' Tumor
• Neuroblastoma
• Neurofibromatosis
• Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma see Lymphoma
• Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer see Lung Cancer



• Oncology see Cancer
• Oral Cancer
• Osteosarcoma see Bone Cancer
• Ovarian Cancer
• Paget's Disease of Breast see Breast Cancer



• Pancreatic Cancer
• PAP Smear see Cervical Cancer
• Paranasal Sinus Cancer see Nasal Cancer
• Pharynx Cancer see Head and Neck Cancer
• Pheochromocytoma



• Plasma-cell Myeloma see Multiple Myeloma
• Plasmacytoma see Multiple Myeloma
• Prostate Cancer
• Radiation Therapy
• Radiosurgery see Radiation Therapy



• Radiotherapy see Radiation Therapy
• Rectal Cancer see Colorectal Cancer
• Renal Cancer see Kidney Cancer
• Retinoblastoma see Eye Cancer
• Rhabdomyosarcoma see Soft Tissue Sarcoma



• Sarcoma, Ewing's see Bone Cancer
• Sarcoma, Soft Tissue see Soft Tissue Sarcoma
• Skin Cancer
• Small Cell Lung Cancer see Lung Cancer
• Small Intestine Cancer see Intestinal Cancer



• Soft Tissue Sarcoma
• Stomach Cancer
• Testicular Cancer
• Throat Cancer see Head and Neck Cancer
• Thymus Cancer



• Thyroid Cancer
• Tumor see Cancer
• Tumors, Benign see Benign Tumors
• Ureteral Cancer see Bladder Cancer
• Urethral Cancer see Bladder Cancer



• Urinary Bladder Cancer see Bladder Cancer
• Uterine Cancer
• Vaginal Cancer
• von Recklinghausen's Disease see Neurofibromatosis
• Vulvar Cancer



• Wilms' Tumor

Atrial myxoma

Atrial myxoma

An atrial myxoma is a noncancerous tumor in the upper left or right side of the heart. It grows on the wall (atrial septum) that separates the two sides of the heart.

Causes

A myxoma is a primary heart (cardiac) tumor. This means that the tumor started within the heart. Most heart tumors start somewhere else.

Primary cardiac tumors are rare. Myxomas are the most common type of these rare tumors. About 75% of myxomas occur in the left atrium of the heart, usually beginning in the wall that divides the two upper chambers of the heart. The rest are in the right atrium. Right atrial myxomas are sometimes associated with tricuspid stenosis and atrial fibrillation.

Myxomas are more common in women. About 10% of myxomas are passed down through families (inherited). Such tumors are called familial myxomas. They tend to occur in more than one part of the heart at a time, and often cause symptoms at a younger age than other myxomas.

Symptoms

Symptoms may occur at any time, but most often they accompany a change of body position. Symptoms may include:

• Breathing difficulty when lying flat
• Breathing difficulty when asleep
• Chest pain or tightness
• Dizziness
• Fainting
• Sensation of feeling your heart beat (palpitations)
• Shortness of breath with activity

The symptoms and signs of left atrial myxomas often mimic mitral stenosis.

General symptoms may also be present, such as:

• Blueness of skin, especially the fingers (Raynaud's phenomenon)
• Cough
• Curvature of nails accompanied with soft tissue enlargement (clubbing) of the fingers
• Fever
• Fingers that change color upon pressure or with cold or stress
• General discomfort (malaise)
• Involuntary weight loss
• Joint pain
• Swelling - any part of the body

These general symptoms may also mimic those of infective endocarditis.

Exams and Tests

The health care provider will listen to the heart with stethoscope. A "tumor plop" (a sound related to movement of the tumor), abnormal heart sounds, or murmur may be heard. These sounds may change when the patient changes position.

Right atrial myxomas rarely produce symptoms until they have grown to be at least 13 cm (about 5 inches) wide.

Imaging tests may include:

• Chest x-ray
• CT scan of chest
• ECG
• Echocardiogram
• Doppler study
• Heart MRI
• Left heart angiography
• Right heart angiography

Blood tests:

A complete blood count may show anemia and increased white blood cells. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is increased.

Treatment

The tumor must be surgically removed. Some patients will also need their mitral valve replaced. This can be done during the same surgery.

Myxomas may come back if surgery did not remove all of the tumor cells.

Outlook (Prognosis)

Although a myxoma is not cancer, complications are common. Untreated, a myxoma can lead to an embolism (tumor cells breaking off and traveling with the bloodstream), which can block blood flow or cause the myxoma to grow in another part of the body. Myxoma fragments can move to the brain, eye, or limbs.

If the tumor grows inside the heart, it can block blood flow through the mitral valve and cause symptoms of mitral stenosis. This may require emergency surgery to prevent sudden death.

Possible Complications

• Arrhythmias
• Pulmonary edema
• Peripheral emboli
• Spread (metastasis) of the tumor
• Blockage of the mitral heart valve

When to Contact a Medical Professional

Tell your health care provider if there is any family history of myxomas or if you have symptoms of atrial myxoma.

Update Date: 5/12/2008

Updated by: Larry A. Weinrauch, MD, Assistant Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, and Private practice specializing in Cardiovascular Disease, Watertown, MA. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc.

citalopram

citalopram

DRUG CLASS AND MECHANISM: Citalopram is an antidepressant medication that affects neurotransmitters, the chemicals that nerves within the brain use to communicate with each other. Neurotransmitters are manufactured and released by nerves and then travel and attach to nearby nerves. Thus, neurotransmitters can be thought of as the communication system of the brain. Many experts believe that an imbalance among neurotransmitters is the cause of depression. Citalopram works by preventing the uptake of one neurotransmitter, serotonin, by nerve cells after it has been released. Since uptake is an important mechanism for removing released neurotransmitters and terminating their actions on adjacent nerves, the reduced uptake caused by citalopram results in more free serotonin in the brain to stimulate nerve cells. Citalopram is in the class of drugs called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a class that also contains fluoxetine (Prozac), paroxetine (Paxil) and sertraline (Zoloft). Citalopram was approved by the FDA in July 1998.

GENERIC AVAILABLE: Yes

PRESCRIPTION: Yes

PREPARATIONS: Tablets: 10, 20, and 40 mg. Solution: 10 mg/5 ml

STORAGE: Citalopram should be stored at room temperature, 15 to 30 C (59 to 86 F).

PRESCRIBED FOR: Citalopram is used for the management of depression. Citalopram also is used for treating obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), panic disorder, premenstrual dysphoric syndrome (PMDD), anxiety disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder.

DOSING: The usual starting dose is 20 mg in the morning or evening. The dose may be increased to 40 mg daily after one week. A dose of 60 mg has not been shown to be more effective than 40 mg. As with all antidepressants, it may take several weeks of treatment before maximum effects are seen. Doses are often slowly adjusted upwards to find the most effective dose.

DRUG INTERACTIONS: All SSRIs, including citalopram, should not be taken with any of the mono-amine oxidase (MAO) inhibitor-class of antidepressants, for example, isocarboxazid (Marplan), phenelzine (Nardil), tranylcypromine (Parnate), selegiline (Eldepryl), and procarbazine (Matulane). Such combinations may lead to confusion, high blood pressure, tremor, and hyperactivity. If treatment is to be changed from citalopram to an MAOI or vice-versa, there should be a 14 day period without either drug before the alternative drug is started. Tryptophan, a common dietary supplement, can cause headaches, nausea, sweating, and dizziness when taken with any SSRI.

Use of an SSRI with aspirin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or other drugs that affect bleeding may increase the likelihood of upper gastrointestinal bleeding.

PREGNANCY: Exposure of neonates to citalopram in the third trimester may cause complications.

NURSING MOTHERS: Citalopram is excreted in breast milk. Breastfeeding by a citalopram treated woman may cause adverse effects in the infant.

SIDE EFFECTS: The most common side effects associated with citalopram are nausea, dry mouth, vomiting, excessive sweating, headache, tremor, drowsiness, and inability to sleep. Overall, between 1 in 6 and 1 in 5 persons experience a side effect. Citalopram is also associated with sexual dysfunction. Some patients may experience withdrawal reactions upon stopping citalopram. Symptoms of withdrawal include dizziness, tingling sensations, tiredness, vivid dreams, and irritability or poor mood.

Antidepressants increased the risk of suicidal thinking and behavior (suicidality) in short-term studies in children and adolescents with depression and other psychiatric disorders. Anyone considering the use of citalopram or any other antidepressant in a child or adolescent must balance this risk with the clinical need. Patients who are started on therapy should be closely observed for clinical worsening, suicidality, or unusual changes in behavior.

Heart Attack Treatment

Heart Attack Treatment

A heart attack (also known as a myocardial infarction) is the death of heart muscle from the sudden blockage of a coronary artery by a blood clot. Coronary arteries are blood vessels that supply the heart muscle with blood and oxygen. Blockage of a coronary artery deprives the heart muscle of blood and oxygen, causing injury to the heart muscle. Injury to the heart muscle causes chest pain and pressure. If blood flow is not restored within 20 to 40 minutes, irreversible death of the heart muscle will begin to occur. Muscle continues to die for six to eight hours at which time the heart attack usually is "complete." The dead heart muscle is replaced by scar tissue.

Approximately one million Americans suffer a heart attack each year. Four hundred thousand of them die as a result of their heart attack.

Click here to view interactive photos of hearts that have suffered a heart attack.

How is a heart attack treated?

Treatment of heart attacks include:

• Anti-platelet medications to prevent formation of blood clots in the arteries

• Anti-coagulant medications to prevent growth of blood clots in the arteries

• Coronary angiography with either percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) with or without stenting to open blocked coronary arteries

• Clot-dissolving medications to open blocked arteries

• Supplemental oxygen to increase the supply of oxygen to the heart's muscle

• Medications to decrease the need for oxygen by the heart's muscle

• Medications to prevent abnormal heart rhythms

The primary goal of treatment is to quickly open the blocked artery and restore blood flow to the heart muscle, a process called reperfusion. Once the artery is open, damage to heart muscle ceases, and the patient becomes pain free. By minimizing the extent of heart muscle damage, early reperfusion preserves the pumping function of the heart. Optimal benefit is obtained if reperfusion can be established within the first four to six hours of a heart attack. Delay in establishing reperfusion can result in more widespread damage to heart muscle and a greater reduction in the ability of the heart to pump blood. Patients with hearts that are unable to pump sufficient blood develop heart failure, decreased ability to exercise, and abnormal heart rhythms. Thus, the amount of healthy heart muscle remaining after a heart attack is the most important determinant of the future quality of life and longevity.

Medications and Drugs

Medications and Drugs

DRUG CLASS AND MECHANISM: Cephalexin belongs to a class of antibiotics called cephalosporins. They are similar to penicillin in action and side effects. They stop or slow the growth of bacterial cells by preventing bacteria from forming the cell wall that surrounds each cell. The cell wall protects bacteria from the external environment and keeps the contents of the cell together. Without a cell wall, bacteria are not able to survive. Bacteria that are susceptible to cephalexin include Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, E. coli and several others. Cephalexin was approved by the FDA in January 1971.

PRESCRIPTION: Yes

GENERIC AVAILABLE: Yes

PREPARATIONS: Tablets: 250 and 500 mg, and 1 g. Capsules: 250, 333, 500 and 750 mg. Powder for Suspension: 125 and 250 mg/5 ml.

STORAGE: Tablets and capsules should be stored at room temperature, 15-30°C (59-86°F). Suspensions should be refrigerated and discarded after 14 days.

PRESCRIBED FOR: Cephalexin is used to treat infections caused by bacteria that are susceptible to the effects of cephalexin. Common infections that are treated with cephalexin include infections of the middle ear, tonsils, throat, larynx (laryngitis), bronchi (bronchitis) and pneumonia. It also is used for treating urinary tract, skin, and bone infections.

DOSING: The dose of cephalexin for adults is 1 to 4 grams in divided doses. Children are treated with 25-100 mg/kg/day in divided doses. The dosing interval may be every 6 or 12 hours depending on the infection.

DRUG INTERACTIONS: Serious interactions of cephalexin with other drugs are uncommon.

PREGNANCY: There are no good studies of cephalexin in pregnant women. Cephalexin should only be used during pregnancy if there are no other safe alternatives.

NURSING MOTHERS: Most cephalosporins are excreted in breast milk. Nursing mothers should avoid using cephalosporins or stop breastfeeding while taking a cephalosporin.

SIDE EFFECTS: The most common side effects of cephalexin are diarrhea, nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting, headaches, dizziness, skin rash, fever, abnormal liver tests and vaginitis. Individuals who are allergic to penicillin may also be allergic to cephalexin.

Cephalexin, like almost all antibiotics, may cause mild or severe cases of pseudomembranous colitis, a mild to severe inflammation of the colon. Antibiotics, including cephalexin alter the normal flora of the colon and permit overgrowth of a bacterium called Clostridium difficile. Studies indicate that a toxin produced by Clostridium difficile is a primary cause of pseudomembranous colitis.

What is cancer of the colon and rectum?

What is cancer of the colon and rectum?

The colon is the part of the digestive system where the waste material is stored. The rectum is the end of the colon adjacent to the anus. Together, they form a long, muscular tube called the large intestine (also known as the large bowel). Tumors of the colon and rectum are growths arising from the inner wall of the large intestine. Benign tumors of the large intestine are called polyps. Malignant tumors of the large intestine are called cancers. Benign polyps do not invade nearby tissue or spread to other parts of the body. Benign polyps can be easily removed during colonoscopy and are not life-threatening. If benign polyps are not removed from the large intestine, they can become malignant (cancerous) over time. Most of the cancers of the large intestine are believed to have developed from polyps. Cancer of the colon and rectum (also referred to as colorectal cancer) can invade and damage adjacent tissues and organs. Cancer cells can also break away and spread to other parts of the body (such as liver and lung) where new tumors form. The spread of colon cancer to distant organs is called metastasis of the colon cancer. Once metastasis has occurred in colorectal cancer, a complete cure of the cancer is unlikely.

Globally, cancer of the colon and rectum is the third leading cause of cancer in males and the fourth leading cause of cancer in females. The frequency of colorectal cancer varies around the world. It is common in the Western world and is rare in Asia and Africa. In countries where the people have adopted western diets, the incidence of colorectal cancer is increasing.

Origins of cancer

Origins of cancer

All cancers begin in cells, the body's basic unit of life. To understand cancer, it's helpful to know what happens when normal cells become cancer cells.

The body is made up of many types of cells. These cells grow and divide in a controlled way to produce more cells as they are needed to keep the body healthy. When cells become old or damaged, they die and are replaced with new cells.

However, sometimes this orderly process goes wrong. The genetic material (DNA) of a cell can become damaged or changed, producing mutations that affect normal cell growth and division. When this happens, cells do not die when they should and new cells form when the body does not need them. The extra cells may form a mass of tissue called a tumor.